Corrections Purpose and History Essay Example for Free

Corrections Purpose and History Essay The history of punishment is a unique one, since the dawn of man human kind has punished one another. Man did not merely throw someone in a chamber and let them contemplate their crimes such as we do in today’s society; rather, during those early times, punishment was harsh and swift. Criminals were not drawn through the litigation processes; instead, they were found immediately guilty of a crime and brought forth to be punished in an open forum, serving to the masses as an example of the consequences of crime. The early forms of punishment in Europe varied greatly but all forms were meant to inflict unimaginable pain upon the recipient, and it is from the European methods of imprisonment from which the U.S. drew inspiration. Punishment such as crucifixion, burning on pyres, guillotines, and gauntlets are but a few examples of what methods were utilized as early methods of punishment in early Europe. This illustrates the underlying ideology that punishment should be administered with two principles in mind, deterrence and retribution. Purpose and History Methods of imprisonment introduced near the turn of the eighteenth century England inspired and revolutionized the way we punish and house inmates. In England during the fifteenth and sixteenth century’s corporal punishment reined supreme. Public beatings were carried out in the streets with whips; beheadings and torture were the norm for serious crimes; and enslavement was common for petty offenders. During the seventeenth century in England and other European countries, imprisonment for lesser offenses started to occur but conditions were less than desirable or humane. These facilities were overcrowded, unsanitary, and, worst of all, gender/age neutral, which meant that male felons frequently took liberties with incarcerated women and children (Incarcerated: The History of the Penitentiary from 1776-Present, 1997). The American Colonies quickly embraced the idea of imprisonment, because of the religious freedoms English settlers sought when they colonized this nation. The Quakers were a religious group that settled in the northeast United States and they developed new laws to govern punishment and incarcerations that focused on prolonged imprisonment to serve as retribution for crimes committed. The Quakers belief system focused on of morality, peace, non-violence, and humanity. As such they showed mercy on offenders by allowing them to shed their anti-social behaviors through long term incarceration and a penance of hard labor. It is from this that modern the concept of reformation was established. Since this form of incarceration gained popularity, it has held onto two core principles: that a criminal can make restitutions for his/her crimes and that a convict can be eventually reintegrated back into society. The new form of punishment provided an alternative to the implemented punishments of yesteryear. Auburn versus Cherry Hill Pennsylvania System This reformation of how society punished criminals served as the foundation for new and competing theories on incarceration and punishment. In America around the early 1800’s, two prison systems were the dominant models of confinement: the Pennsylvania and the Auburn State. The first model was the Pennsylvania model, which was first used at Cherry Hill prison. This model used solitary confinement as its primary tool: convicts were perpetually detained without interactions with other individuals or time outside of confinement. The idea was that solitary confinement would lead to inward reflection and religious motivation and result in a penitent convict. In fact the word penitentiary actually comes from the Pennsylvania model of perpetual confinement because it had religious implications. At first, particularly in Cherry Hill, a Bible would be left in the solitary confinement cells in the hopes it would help prisoners repent. The second model was the Auburn State prison system, which supported the labor penance model. It operated under the assumption that hard, physical labor could not only serve as restitution but as a means of helping a convicted criminal reintegrate into society fully reformed. Often, prisoners worked during the day in total silence and would be hosed down them at night. A main criticism of the Auburn system was that prisoners were being used essentially as slave labor. Inmates were being farmed out to private business owners, who had contracts with the state, which in turn lined the pockets of the private businesses and cut costs for the state. As such, the Auburn model became the popular model, because states faced significantly less prison and prisoner care costs. Businesses paid a fee in order to use the prisoners and the prisoners acted as unpaid labor for the businesses. The state prisons pocketed the fees thus creating a revenue stream that could be used to support the prisons, rather than tapping into state funds, i.e. tax payer dollars (Colvin, 1997). Around the 1920’s to 1930’s many changes occurred due to the state of the economy and activists pressing the government for prison reform. One of the main changes occurred when Congress enacted the Hawes Cooper Act, which effectively stymied the sale of prison-made goods or the us e of prison-labor by making such goods subject to state punitive laws. This act was passed in no small part due to the jobs that were needed by good upstanding citizens—jobs that were being taken away during extremely tough financial times by cheap prison labor. Congress had the authority to pass such a law thanks to its power to control and tax interstate commerce. The Ashurst-Sumners Act was the final nail in the coffin by prohibiting transport companies from accepting prison-made products (McShane Williams,1996). The changes that stemmed from the Depression helped shape the correctional system into the rehabilitation-oriented program we have today. Prisoners are now classified into the likelihood of rehabilitation and the type of crimes that were committed, and this determines what type of facility an offender is incarcerated. Since 1935, the government made it clear that prisons must separate prisoners on the basis of gender and age. Now, facilities specifically for juvenile offenders have been established and the handling procedures for you nger offenders have been defined. Furthermore, there are programs to rehabilitate all types of offenders whether their needs are as simple as talking to someone during counseling sessions or educational opportunities. In some ways this system has been detrimental to corrections as a whole because it arguably results in overcrowding and a more lenient attitude: if you commit a crime then you will only have to contend with years off your life rather than hard labor and making reparations for the crime (Seiter, 2011). Over-population has resulted in more money taken from the taxpayers because if there are more people in the correctional system, more facilities and care are needed. Crime levels have dissipated over the years but not dramatically enough to really prove that this system is the true solution to our problems. Conclusion Modern principles of rehabilitation and reform have brought about the institution of facilities to incarcerate convicted individuals; these structures are called penitentiaries, jails, and prisons. Current prisons are more aptly concerned with long-term detention rather than a temporary housing prior to punishment like it was used as in the past. Today’s Prisons are a shell of the former institutions. Inmates in facilities today would never allow themselves to be used for labor outside prison walls it would be considered cruel and unusual punishment. For now the correctional system work, but soon it could be on the verge of collapse and any moment the flood gates could burst and the concept of rehabilitation could come to an end. References: Mcshane, M. D., Williams, F. P. (1996). Encyclopedia of American Prisons (2nd ed.). Taylor and Francis. INCARCERATED: THE HISTORY OF THE PENITENTIARY FROM 1776- PRESENT. (1997). Retrieved from http://www.richeast.org/htwm/jails/Jails.html Colvin, M. (1997). Penitentiaries, Reformatories, and Chain Gangs: Social Theory and the History of Punishment in Nineteenth Century America. : St. Martin’s Press. Seiter, R. (2011). Corrections an Introduction (3rd ed.). Upper saddle Hall, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Humanism in the Renaissance Period

Humanism in the Renaissance Period Humanism of the renaissance period has manifested a new and developed courtier that is different from earlier courtiers of the medieval age. Courts, during the Renaissance, were the center of social as well as political life of monarchs and other members of society. Individuals like clergymen, soldiers, and clerks were always present in courts. But the most important figure in courts is the Courtier who basically is a person who attends a royal court as a companion or adviser to the king or queen.  [1]  . This definition of the courtier is applicable to the medieval courtier who is knightly and chivalric, but with the emergence of Humanism and the publication of books of conduct that strive for perfection in a human being a new Humanistic inclusive courtier has emerged. To understand what constitutes a Renaissance courtier and whether he is different from his medieval counterpart an examination of the medieval ideal and of Renaissance Humanism is a must. Classical mythology has always appealed to the medieval court and many medieval romances were based on classical works. The pagan Greek and Roman heroes were transformed into chivalric knights, the classical wars became medieval crusades and the platonic concept of love inspired medieval courtly love. Chaucers parfit gentil knyght (Halsall L.71)seems to be the noblest of the pilgrims embodying military expertise, devotion, honor, bounty, and courtesy. He carries himself in a gracious and well bread fashion, never articulating a cruel word about anyone: A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man, That fro the tyme that he first bigan To riden out, he loved chivalrie, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie. Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre, (Halsall L.43-7) His tale, a chivalric romance set in ancient Athens, touches upon all the great subjects and values of knightly conduct. Courtly love, honor, chivalry and adventure dominate this tale. Every conduct in this story is ideal; the love is pure, ideal and platonic, honor is at its highest standards, chivalry is exemplary in its magnificence. The poem starts with the Knight, Theseus, coming back from a triumphant journey and on his way he meets a group of mourning women grasping onto his horses bridle. The women tell their terrible story of how they lost their husbands in the siege of Thebes and how the cruel tyrant of Thebes plans to dishonor their husbands bodies by denying them burial. Moved by this spectacle the Knight takes pity on them and changes his course. Instead of returning to Athens to celebrate victory, he rides off with traditional knightly spirit to right the wrongs in this world. Then in this war he takes two prisoners who are friends, Arcite and Palamon, and who are Knigh ts as well. In prison the two notice, from the window of their cell, the beautiful Emily walking in the garden. In an instant they fall in love, and their friendship is replaced by a passionate rivalry. At this point in the Knights tale readers are introduced to the concept of courtly love. After a great deal of dispute and duels and a grand tournament, Arcite, the noble knight and gentleman, calls Palamon Emily to his deathbed and asks of his friend to marry his beloved in an attempt to reconcile with his friend. A true embodiment of the medieval gentry. In early modern Europe, people paid special attention to the life of the royal court, and the image of the courtier was depicted in many literary works. In Cortegiano (1528), or The Book of The Courtier (an English translation by Sir Tomas Hoby 1561), Baldassare Castiglione an Italian courtier in the Renaissance Italy writes an account on the ideal image of the perfect courtier. This book is recognized by historians as a resourceful reference to the Renaissance court life. Over the course of four evening conversations between the courtiers in the court of Urbino in Italy, the narrators discuss and describe what constitute a perfect courtier, for they agree that a courtier who had the privilege to accompany the royalties must be perfect. It is been argued in The Book of The Courtier that a noble courtier is often: endowed with such gifts that they seem not to have been born but to have been formed by some godand blessed with every possible advantage of mind and body (Castiglione 124 ). The perfect courtier must have a reputation of a brave strong man and must maintain this reputation. His profession should be of a warrior who is enterprising, bold, and loyal to whomever he serves(131). This warrior courtier should be fierce rough and always to the fore, in the presence of the enemy; but anywhere else he should be kind, modest, reticent and anxious above all to avoid ostentation or the kind of outrageous self- glorification (135). The aspect of the perfect courtiers appearance is also identified. He must be very agreeable and pleasing and well dressed. He should manage to appear both manly and graceful (141). There is great resentment for the courtier who tries to appear soft and feminine not only in his looks but also in the way he speaks and walks. As for the physical appearance, he should be well built not necessarily too small or too big. He must possess the physical appearance of a warrior who masters the skills of every kind of weapon. The perfect courtier is expected to be a good athlete who is so skilful in many kinds of sports, like horse riding, swimming, and running. There are also many other sports, but it seems that hunting is the most important since it resembles warfare [and] it is the true pastime of great lords (147). Besides his appearance, the good gentleman of the court must possess the finest set of manners. He is modest, gentle, elegant and graceful. He ought to avoid the affectation of being a bold fellow who shouts, swears and brags. When the perfect courtier speaks, his words have grace and dignity and they are sensible and effective and convey what he wants to say. He is a good writer too, and the words he uses in his writings should be appropriate, carefully chosen, clear, and well formed. The courtier requires knowledge in order to speak and write well, because the man who has nothing in his mind that is worth hearing has nothing worth writing and speaking of. Another literary work that depicted the lives of the courtiers is Le Morte Darthur (1485) by Sir Thomas Malory. This work is considered a masterpiece of the fifteenth century prose of romance tales about the legendary King Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot, and the Knights of the Round Table. (Alexander). The Faerie Queene (1590), an allegorical epic poem written in praise of Queen Elizabeth I, follows several knights in an examination of several virtues. In Spensers A Letter of the Authors he states that the entire poem is cloudily enwrapped in allegorical devises and that the aim of publishing The Faerie Queene was to fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline (Department of Literature). The printed text of Jonsons Every Man out of his Humour (1599) opens with a series of short prose sketches entitled The Characters of the Persons Fastidius Brisk, for example, is described as: A neat, spruce, affecting courtier, one that wears clothes well and in fashion; practiseth by his glass how to salute; speaks good remnants (notwithstanding the base viol and tobacco); swears tersely, and with variety; cares not what ladys favour he belies, or great mans familiarity: a good property to perfume the boot of a coach . (Braunmuller and Hettaway) Instructive prose, which become somewhat of a trend at the time, were written for the aim of improving gentlemen. They were mostly written by tutors to the greats, sons of monarchs and noblemen. These prose were written under the influence of the Humanist tradition of the time, the instruction of the youth (Bates). Sir Thomas Elyot dedicated his Governor (1531) to guide Henry VIII on being the perfect gentleman and governor. He stressed the importance of education in classical literature for governors. Henry VIII, prior to being a king, was in fact a ideal example of a renaissance courtier and gentleman; a champion athlete who composed poems and songs, highly educated and skilled in speech. Another instructive book of the Renaissance within the same tradition is Toxophilus (1544). A book about bow archery by Roger Ascham also dedicated to King Henry VIII. Toxophilus is written in the form of a dialogue between two characters, Philologus, who loves study, and Toxophilus, who loves arc hery and who is also a scholar and defends archery as a noble hobby (Ascham). The Prince (1532) by Niccolo Machiavelli is a political treatise that was published after the death of its author. The book is a practical guide to the exercise of political power. It preaches that the princes ends justify the means which they take to attain them; a rather disturbing but truthful statement (Machiavelli). Other instructive books with titles like, The Schoolmaster and On the Excellency and Dignity of Mankind appeared during the Renaissance (Baldwin). Renaissance Humanism in its narrowest sense is a movement devoted to the study, revival and translation of classical literature which is why at its beginnings early Humanism focused on education. The need to educate the rulers springs out from the platonic and ancient belief in a perfect republic. Renaissance humanists found it most necessary to educate the leaders of the time in a hope to transform them into capable intelligent patrons of a humanist culture. Thus, early Humanism transformed the European high culture pushing for the inclusive human who is not only educated in the classics but who is educated in philosophy, art, literature, science, music etc. this lead Renaissance Humanism to have a broader philosophical dimension; to encompass all forms of knowledge for the aim of guiding humanity to a better position in life, hence the explosion in scholarly interests and inventions. The Humanistic movement was initiated by Petrarch, the father of Humanism. He is the first to put into words why the centuries between the Roman age and his current age were called age of darkness. According to him this darkness can be remedied only by the study and imitation of the great classical authors. Only by caring about the self, educating and polishing ones mind can one attain wisdom: The care of the soul calls for a philosopher, while the proper use of language requires an orator. We must neglect neither one, if, as they say, we are to return to the earth and be led about on the mouths of men. But I shall speak of the care of the soul elsewhere; for it is a great undertaking and an enormous labor, though very rich in harvest. At this time in order to avoid slipping into a subject other than the one that I set out to treat, I urge and admonish that we correct not only our life and conduct, which is the primary concern of virtue, but our language usage as well. This we will do by the cultivation of eloquence.  [2]  (Zak 79) Petrarch here is building on Ciceros conception of the art of persuasion. Petrarch emphasizes that once language is mastered it could be utilized to attain eloquence or rhetoric, and then rhetoric is led to embrace philosophy. Renaissance Humanism have made use of the earlier idea of the exemplary magnificence of knights and fused the ideal Knight with the Classics scholar and the end result was the Renaissance Courtier. He is a citizen who excels in classical literature, history, and arts. A skilled fencer, rider, and most importantly a composer and performer of music and poetry which is the immediate result of humanistic stress on eloquence. This courtier is of noble decent and is trained to administrate and govern. Success to him comes naturally and it is worn with grace. The historical records of the era list a number of English poets who were courtiers. Sir Thomas Wyatt, is considered the first English Gentleman courtier (Alexander). Surreys Epitaph on Sir Thomas Wyatt praises the parts that constitute of him a Renaissance courtier: A tongue that served in foreign realms his king, Whose courteous talk to virtue did inflame Each noble heart: a worthy guide to bring Our English youth by travail unto fame. An eye whose judgment no affect could blind, feeling Friends to allure and foes to reconcile, Whose piercing look did represent a mind With virtue fraught, reposà ¨d, void of guile. (Alexander 57) Surry portrays him as an exemplary gentleman. In fact Sir Thomas Wyatt lead the typical life of a courtier; performing political duties and going on diplomatic posts on behalf of his patron, King Henry VIII. He was a sonneteer who sang about unrequited love, and is rumored to having a romantic relation with the kings wife which caused him to suffer imprisonment. But given the tradition of courtly love it is not strange for courtiers of the time to go through such ordeals. Sir Walter Raleigh was also a very famous courtier who served Queen Elizabeth I and who suffered imprisonment for unbecoming conduct. The ideal, however, of aristocracy and courtliness is embodied in the person and accomplishments of Sir Philip Sidney who served in several political and military posts. He refers, for example, to his vast literary work Arcadia as a trifle. But his ultimate embodiment of the Renaissance courtier is when he lay dying on the battlefield, he is said to have given his water-bottle to a common soldier, saying, Take it, for thy necessity is yet greater than mine  [3]  . It is interesting, however, to find that these courtly values and commitment to character and its refinement are not restricted to the Renaissance age. Islamic humanism has produced a similar tradition of ethics. Courtly Humanism existed in the form of ambitious wazirs  [4]  and princes seeking to be polished and of a higher culture through the patronage of poets, painters, scholars, scientists, and philosophers. Having administrative skills and military expertise were virtues that were highly rewarded. The tradition of courtly love was also present in Islamic culture; Ibn Hazms Neckring of the Dove (Tawq al-Hamama)is the first book that talks about this tradition of courtly love; its symptoms, secrets, betrayals, etc.(62) The most explicit advocate of this philosophical concept is Miskawayh. He is an embodiment of the Muslim courtier; Khalidi describes him as a prolific author, a philosopher of very broad interests, an accomplished poet and adib  [5]  , as well as a universa l historian. His On the Refinement of Character [Tahdhib al Akhlaq] has been called the most influential work on philosophical ethics in Islam (Goodman). It is an ethical work that encompassed all his values by demonstrating and stressing the importance of an inclusive gentleman, courtier or rather human for the purpose of the betterment of humanity (107). Evidently, the Renaissance courtier springs out from Humanisms tendency for perfection. Humanistic conduct texts and literary works have contributed to exemplify what a courtier should be, an all inclusive human being. As the attainment of perfection is integral in humans, and the aspiration for perfection and the affirmation of human ability is universal, the Humanistic courtier can be found in other cultures as well.

Riboflavin biosynthesis in Bacillus Subtilis

Riboflavin biosynthesis in Bacillus Subtilis Motivation: Many important problems in cell biology require the dense nonlinear interactions between functional modules to be considered. The importance of computer simulation in understanding cellular processes is now widely accepted, and a variety of simulations algorithms useful for studying certain subsystems have been designed. 1 introduction Human and animal needs vitamins and minerals to help in the growth of the body and prevent disease, obtained from food or supplements. For example, an important vitamin is riboflavin and Riboflavin is water-soluble vitamins also sources of riboflavin are milk, meat, fish, fruits and vegetables. Diets that do not contain riboflavin or poor riboflavin cause serious health problems. For example, a disorder of the digestive system, heart disease and blood vessels. Riboflavin deficiency may also cause cancer. The name riboflavin comes from ribose (the sugar whose reduced form, ribitol, forms part of its structure) and flavin, the ring-moiety which imparts the yellow color to the oxidized molecule (from Latin flavus, yellow). The reduced form, which occurs in metabolism along with the oxidized form, is colorless. Riboflavin has been used in several clinical and therapeutic situations. For over 30 years, riboflavin supplements have been used as part of the phototherapy treatment of neonatal jaundice. The light used to irradiate the infants breaks down not only bilirubin, the toxin causing the jaundice, but also the naturally occurring riboflavin within the infants blood, so extra supplementation is necessary. Riboflavin is a yellow substance which was isolated in 1879. Riboflavin name comes from ribose sugar substance and also characterized by yeast an excellent dietary source. In addition, it contains two factors which are aide Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and a Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) (Daniel, 2012). 2 Background It has been pointed out by (Bretzel, et al.1999) and recently been produced commercially by riboflavin chemical manufacturing or by fermentation, where the production of riboflavin with a purity of at least 97-98% of foodstuffs and medicines. In addition, scientists biological prefer to biological and chemical manufacturing and much more than manufacturing because of the many advantages. For example, low material cost, low waste and energy requirements due to the use of renewable energy. It has been producing a large amount of riboflavin from many organisms’ example of the use of fungi, yeast and bacteria Bacillus Subtilis (Li Wu, Q, 2007). Research indicated that since 30 years the world’s consumption of riboflavin equivalent of 1.25 Ãâ€" 106 kg per year. However, the amount of riboflavin are currently more than 3.000 tons per year (Han Lim, et al.2001). Bacillus Subtilis is a gram positive, aerobic bacteria that converts glucose directly to riboflavin. Cell metabolisms are highly dependent on environmental conditions, so the metabolic state often shifts during the cultivation period. Characterizing the transience of metabolic fluxes is important for understanding how cells responded to environmental changes. (Boyle NR, Morgan JA, 2009) Fig. 1.Riboflavin synthesis reactions As the provide chart (Riboflavin synthesis reactions) shows, riboflavin bio-product of the yeast start from Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and there are two molecules of ribulose-5-phosphate, which leads to the production of riboflavin with enzymes encoded with RIB1, RIB2, RIB4, RIB5, RIB7 and FMN1 names which helps in the production of Flavin mononucleotide also Flavin adenine dinucleotide by enzyme FAD. Moreover, ribose involved in the production of riboflavin with 3 parts of 4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-P and 6 parts of 7-dimethyl-8-(1-D-ribityl) lumazine. 3 methods 3.1 In-silico (computational) model In silico models have prompted considerable interest and debate because of their potential value in predicting the properties of chemical substances for regulatory purposes. The European REACH legislation promotes innovation and encourages the use of alternative methods, but in practice the use of in silico models is still very limited. (Benfenati E. and others, 2011) 3.2 Conceptual modelling – ER diagram Conceptual modeling is a way of carrying out an analysis of a system in order to identify the types of things in the system, the actual instances of those things and the relationships between those things. Entity relationship (ER) modeling is a conceptual modeling approach commonly used in Computer Science to model a domain for the development of a database. However, ER modeling provides a useful approach to starting to think about models of biological systems. 3.3 Biological network analysis and construction using Cytoscape Cytoscape platform providing a full feature set for biological network analysis. It is an open source software platform for visualizing molecular interaction networks and biological pathways and integrating these networks with annotations, gene expression profiles and other state data. Although Cytoscape was originally designed for biological research, now it is a general platform for complex network analysis and visualization. Cytoscape core distribution provides a basic set of features for data integration, analysis, and visualization. 3.4 Exploring integrated networks using String and Ondex The Ondex is a data integration platform which enables data from diverse biological data sets to be linked, integrated and visualised through graph analysis techniques. Ondex uses a rich and flexible core data structure, which has the ability to bring together information from structured databases and unstructured sources such as biological sequence data and free text. Ondex also allows users to visualize and analyze the integrated data. Ondex is free and open-source software. STRING is a database of known and predicted protein interactions. The interactions include direct (physical) and indirect (functional) associations. Together String and Ondex are very useful in case of exploring integrated networks and simulation. 3.5 Dynamic modeling using SBML SBML is neutral with respect to programming languages and software encoding; however, its oriented towards allowing models to be encoded using XML. By supporting SBML as a format for reading and writing models, different software tools (including programs for building and editing models, simulation programs, databases, and other systems) can directly communicate and store the same computable representation of those models. This removes an impediment to sharing results and permits other researchers to start with an unambiguous representation of the model, examine it carefully, propose precise corrections and extensions, and apply new techniques and approaches — in short, to do better science (Rhoads DG, Pring M, 1998) 3.6 RuleBender and BioNetGen and a rule-based language for modelling biochemical reactions Modern biological experiments generate large amounts of data describing intracellular dynamics. Rule-based languages for describing intracellular biochemistry allow for the construction and simulation of detailed models with unprecedented scope and precision. Rule-based Models can be used to suggest new hypotheses and new ideas for future experimentation. Rule-based models can be difficult to understand and time consuming to debug. RuleBender is a free tool for constructing, debugging, simulating and analyzing rule-based biological models in the BioNetGen language. 3.7 Flux Balance Analysis using OptFlux Flux balance analysis is a mathematical approach for analyzing the flow of metabolites through a metabolic network. (Jeffrey D. Orth at el, 2010). OptFlux is an open-source and modular software to support in silico metabolic engineering tasks aimed at being the reference computational application in the field. 3.8 Stochastic simulation algorithm using BioNetGen Stochastic Simulation Algorithm (GSSA) and its variants are cornerstone techniques to simulate reaction kinetics in situations where the concentration of the reactant is too low to allow deterministic techniques such as differential equations. To generate a network in advance of a simulation, which may subsequently be carried out either by numerically solving ODEs or by implementing a stochastic simulation algorithm (SSA) (Gillespie, 2007) 4 Results 4.1 Ribose and Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) The non-specific precursors of riboflavin biosynthesis which are commonly used are guanosine triphosphate and ribulose-5-phosphate. Ribose and Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is biologically responsible for the production of riboflavin with the help of enzymes (RIB1, RIB2, RIB4, RIB5, RIB7) that catalyze reactions to produced riboflavin, with help of (FMN) to produced Flavin mononucleotide. After that, produced Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). It also has the role of a source of energy or an activator of substrates in metabolic reactions, like that of ATP, but more specific. It is used as a source of energy for protein synthesis and gluconeogenesis. GTP is essential to signal transduction, in particular with G-proteins, in second-messenger mechanisms where it is converted to guanosine diphosphate (GDP) through the action of GTPases. Rib A helps stimulate the production of riboflavin and direct link between the other proteins. In addition, is responsible for the outputs of the biochemical processes. Fig. 2.Rib A Simulation Fig. 3. Metal Phosphate Simulation Metal Phosphate, which is linked to a protein. Motivating force proton transfer of phosphate is associated. Thus, the transfer of the phosphate group of phosphate, ATP to amino acids. In conclusion, it is easy to extract the pure biological industries inexpensive and riboflavin without toxic substances. Therefore, it is expected in the future production of large amounts of riboflavin and faster by yeasts and fungi away from harmful chemicals. 4.2 Dynamic modelling of Riboflavin biosynthesis in Bacillus subtilis using SBML Riboflavin synthase catalyzes the transformation of 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine into riboflavin in the last step of the riboflavin biosynthetic pathway. Gram-negative bacteria and certain yeasts are unable to incorporate riboflavin from the environment and are therefore absolutely dependent on endogenous synthesis of the vitamin. (Markus F. et at, 204) Provided a strategy for developing and implementing genome-scale metabolic models. Simultaneous growth and riboflavin overproduction using Bacillus subtilis were investigated using Michaelis-Menten enzyme reaction model using different modern software packages for computer biochemical systems simulation. Fig. 4.Riboflavin Wild Type Simulation of Riboflavin biosynthesis in Bacillus subtilis After re-simulating Riboflavin level has been changed. The added reactions corresponds to a sharper transition of riboflavin level from the beginning of the simulated riboflavin function. Fig. 5.Riboflavin Wild Type Simulation of Riboflavin biosynthesis in Bacillus subtilis 4.3 RuleBender and BioNetGen Riboflavin simulation Rule-based modeling involves the representation of molecules as structured objects and molecular interactions as rules for transforming the attributes of these objects. Fig. 6.Simulation of Riboflavin biosynthesis in Bacillus subtilis using RuleBender The approach allows systematic incorporation of site-specific details about protein-protein interactions into a model for the dynamics of cell regulatory networks, including processes involving cell signaling, gene regulation, and metabolism. The consequences of protein-protein interactions are difficult to specify and track with a conventional modeling approach because of the large number of protein phosphoforms and protein complexes that these interactions potentially generate. Here, we demonstrate how a rule-based model is specified in the BioNetGen language (BNGL) using the RuleBender interface and demonstrate how models can be visualized, simulated, and analyze. 4.4 Riboflavin Flux Balance Analysis Provided a strategy for developing and implementing genome-scale metabolic models. Calculated Synthesis and Biomass Flux values. Simultaneous growth and riboflavin overproduction using Bacillus Subtilis were investigated using Michaelis-Menten enzyme reaction SBML model and OptFlux Software Platform for Metabolic Engineering. Fig. 7.Wild Type Simulation of Riboflavin biosynthesis in Bacillus subtilis using OptFlux Fig. 8.Riboflavin Synthesis and Biomass Flux Values 4.5 Using the SSA with BioNetGen Which Type of Model to use ODE or SSA? At low molecule numbers: use stochastic model. At high molecule numbers: both types of simulation can be used, but SSA might require more â€Å"computing power† than the ODE simulation. When the number of molecules is high SSA behaves like ODE. A chemical reaction model can be converted into a set of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) using the law of mass action. This law states that the rate of a reaction is its rate constant times the concentration of the reactants raised to the power of their stoichiometry. A better method for reasoning about genetic circuits is to utilize Gillespie’s stochastic simulation algorithm (SSA) (Gillespie, 1977). There are several variants of the SSA. This paper uses the direct method, which is shown in Algorithm 1. The SSA takes a chemical reaction network model, M, and computes a time series simulation ÃŽ ±. The SSA is essentially a Monte Carlo algorithm, which treats each reaction as a random event. For the SSA convert concentration to molecule number is using the formula: (1) Where is number of molecules, is concentration, is the Avogadro’s constant and is cell volume. Avogadro’s constant = 6.221023 Table 2. Riboflavin Enzymes convert concentration to molecule number |Enzyme| Value C Value n R5P 5e-07 5 RibA 2e-07 2 D2B4P 5e-07 5 RibH 5e-07 5 RibE 2e-07 2 Fig. 9. Simulating Riboflavin using the SSA with BioNetGen Fig. 10. Simulating Riboflavin using the SSA with BioNetGen CONCLUSION Provided a strategy for developing and implementing genome-scale metabolic models. Calculated synthesis and biomass flux values. Simultaneous growth and riboflavin overproduction using Bacillus Subtilis were investigated using Michaelis-Menten enzyme reaction SBML. An in-silico model of riboflavin biosynthesis in B. subtilis has been successfully developed. Designed the strategy for efficient producing of riboflavin in B. subtilis. The Riboflavin biosynthesis modeling has done using stochastic simulation algorithm. Presented methodology of Riboflavin biosynthesis modeling simulation using such software complexes as: RuleBender and BioNetGen, OptFlux, String and Ondex. Designed dynamic modelling of Riboflavin biosynthesis in Bacillus subtilis using SBML language. References Benfenati E., Oonella Diaza R., Cassano A., Pardoe S., Gini GM Mays C., KnaufR., Benighaus L. (2011) The acceptance of in silico models for REACH: Requirements, barriers, and perspectives, Chemistry Central Journal, Vol 5, pp 58. http://joumal.chemistry central com/content/5/1/58. Boyle NR, Morgan JA (2009) Flux balance analysis of primary metabolism in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. BMC Syst Biol 3: 4 Bretzel, W Schurter, W Ludwig B, Kupfer, E Doswald, S Pfister, M van Loon, A (1999). Commercial riboflavin production by recombinant Bacillus Subtilis: down-stream processing and comparison of the composition of riboflavin produced by fermentation or chemical synthesis. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. Issue 1, pp 19-26. Chem. 58, 36-57 Feng X, Xu Y, Chen Y, Tang YJ (2012) Integrating flux balance analysis into kinetic models to decipher the dynamic metabolism of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. PLoS Comput Biol 8: e1002376 Gillespie, D. T. (1977). Exact stochastic simulation of coupled chemical reactions. J. Phys. Chem. 81, 2340–2361. Gillespie, D. T. (2007) Stochastic simulation of chemical kinetics. Annu. Rev. Phys. Han Lim, S Soo, J Enoch, Y. (Ed.) (2001). Microbial Production of Riboflavin Using Riboflavin Overproducers, Ashbya gossypii, Bacillus Subtilis, and Candida famate: An Overview. Jeffrey D Orth, Ines Thiele, and Bernhard ØPalsson. What is flux balance analysis? Nature biotechnology, 28(3):245– 8, March 2010. Li Wu, Q Chen, T Gan, Y Chen, X Ming Zhao, X (2007). Optimization of riboflavin production by recombinant Bacillus Subtilis RH44 using statistical designs. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. Issue 4, pp 783-794. Markus F., Werner R., Sabine S., Boris I., Gerald Richter, Felix R., Wolfgang E., Adelbert B. (2004) â€Å"Evolution of vitamin B2 biosynthesis: structural and functional similarity between pyrimidine deaminases of eubacterial and plant origin.†, J. Biol. Chem., vol. 279, no. 35 Rhoads DG, Pring M. The simulation and analysis by digital computer of biochemical systems in terms of kinetic models. IV. Automatic derivation of enzymic rate laws. J Theor Biol. 1998 Sep;20(3):297–313. Sauer U., Hatzimanikatis V., Bailey J.E., Hochuli M., Szyperski T., Wà ¼thrich K. (1997) Metabolic fluxes in riboflavin-producing Bacillus subtilis. Nat. Biotechnol. 15, 448–452. Stolz, J (2012). Riboflavin. http://www.nutrition.tum.de/index.php?id=115L=1 (29oct. 2014). 1 [*]To whom correspondence should be addressed.

Latinos, Politics, and American Cinema Essay -- Movies Films

Latinos, Politics, and American Cinema Feature films in the United States influence American viewers' attitudes on a wide variety of topics. Americans attitudes toward politics are shaped by films, and specifically the politics of racial interaction. The history of modern feature films begins with Birth of a Nation (1915), a film that misrepresents the Black race by justifying the existence and role of the Ku Klux Klan in American society. From this racist precedent, producers and directors understood that visual messages, however latent, were a useful means of communicating a political message to a large audience. After this epiphany, a myriad of films were made for different political causes. Most films had multiple messages, and among them were conservative themes against the Hispanic race. A prime example of a filmmaker who had numerous ideas as to the problems and solutions of race issues in America was Orson Welles. His Touch of Evil (1958) represents many other films in that epoch that had different presentations of race issues. The film utilizes imagery that provokes viewers' ideas of race politics; viewers' attitudes are challenged in many scenes. The reason for this political and racial wavering spawns from the fact that Welles' race politics were not clearly defined. In fact other films, similar to the contradictory nature of Touch of Evil, presented multiple themes precisely because the filmmakers' racial attitudes were blurred. The clearly distinguishable dichotomies of racism were not present, giving way to shades of gray. Richard Stam argues that the study of racial issues in film has been bombarded by critics who reject certain films on the basis of misrepresentation. That is to say that stereotypes, sh... ...omplish political goals. The liberal politics of Latino cinema endure to this day, in the land of Aztlan and throughout the United States. Carringer, Robert L.1976. "Rosebud, Dead or Alive: Narrative and Symbiolic Structure in Citizen Kane," PMLA 91, no.2. Fregoso, Rosa Linda. "Chicana Film Practices: Confronting the 'Many-Headed Demon of Oppression.'" New York, NY: University of Minnesota Press. Gutierrez-Jones, Carl. "Legislating Languages:The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez and the English Language Amendment." New York, NY: University of Minnesota Press. Limon, Jose E. 1973. "Stereotyping and Chicano Resistance An Historical Dimension." New York, NY: University of Minnesota Press. Shohat, Ella. Year. "Ethnicities-in-Relation: Toward a Multicultural Reading of American Cinema." City, State: Publisher. Stam,Richard. Year.Unspeakable Images. City, State: Publisher.

Video Games in Popular Culture: an Exposition Essay -- Violent Gaming

Imagine for a moment, a world of death. For 200 years your family has been sealed away with a thousand other people, to protect you from the dangers outside. Now your father has disappeared, and it’s up to you to find him. After a harrowing escape from your subterranean home, you walk through a tunnel to the outside world, past dead bodies, stretched out in front of the door, as if to say â€Å"don’t leave us out here to die!† As you walk through the gate to the outside, and as your eyes slowly adjust to the sun you have never seen, a wasteland emerges before you. The world is devastated, destroyed and annihilated. Broken twisted hunks of metal lie next to a sign on the side of the mountain saying â€Å"scenic overlook† on your right, the broken remains of the interstate bridge stand as a monument to a destroyed culture. Petrified trees are all that remains of the local fauna. Off in the distance, all that remains is destruction. While you may think of this stunning visualization of a wonderful novel, this is actually one of the opening scenes from Todd Howard and Bethesda Game Studios’ â€Å"Fallout 3.† An examination of videogames in popular culture is a complicated one. There is a large debate as to what is the very first video game. The supposed earliest known video game was created by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann on a cathode ray tube in 1947. The game was a missile simulator similar to radar displays from World War II, and overlaid sheets of paper were used for targets since graphics were unknown at this time. On May 5, 1951, the NIMROD computer was presented in Britain. It used a panel of lights for its display and was used to play a game called â€Å"NIM†. Later, in 1952, Alexander S. Douglas made the first compu... ...lieve that video games in popular culture are a misnomer. Videogames are not â€Å"in† popular culture, they are â€Å"a part of† popular culture, just like TV, radio, and motion pictures. Bibliography 1.) Kutner, Lawrence Ph.D. and Cheryl K. Olson, Sc.D. Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth About Violent Video Games and What Parents Can Do . 1st. Simon & Schuster, 2008. 2.) "2008 SALES, DEMOGRAPHIC AND USAGE DATA." www.theesa.com. Jul/2008. Entertainment Software Association. 2 Nov 2008 . 3.) Hillis, Scott . "Video games don't create killers, new book says." Reuters UK 09May2008 2 Nov 2008 . 4.) "History of video games." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 2001. 2 Nov 2008 .

Marketing proposal

The Iphone is not a phone. It is a revolution that has just started. Some have called it the next resting place of the mind. When we heard that Apple was creating a new product after iPod, we all held our collective breadths, what were Steve jobs up to? Built in the simple elegance that only Apple knows how to this work of arts most distinctive feature is its high-tech multi touch function that creates an amazing   user experience enables an individual to control everything using his or her fingers and type using a predictive keyboard and glade through the multi touch display to find photos, messages, friends easily. There is thankfully lees clutter and none of those confusing functions that get in the way. Yet the iPod lack one function in order to get it fully right. It doesn’t have a mirror, actually a magic mirror. This is the name I have given a feature that the iphone must have. It is an electronic mirror that a clear spread with your hand over the face of the iphone screens morphs up. Magic mirror can be a traditional mirror with a frame and also has drivers that allow you to talk to an animated character who gives an appropriate response by way of drivers that trigger this. It actively mixes video images while communicating via RS 239 and using the Creston automation system. Other functions includes enabling doctors to identify psychological, physical well being by looking at your magic mirror image along with heart beat and blood pressure sensors of patients and the elderly. The target markets for magic mirror are teenage girls, middle income globally. Because of the growth of the world, middle class there has been a parallel growth in affluent teenagers and young adults. No matter where they are in the world, they have similar desires, interests and consumptions. This has been influenced by the worldwide mass media. They watch the same shows, listen to the same music and watch the same movies and videos. They not only idolize the same musicians, dressing styles, mannerisms and attitudes and therefore have the same shared characteristics and preferences. We intend to have teenagers identify with iphone early in life because preferences and tastes formed now can influence purchasing trends throughout their lives. The social cause that I intend to support is the delinquency and lack of manners that is so prevalent in young adults today. While it has become a common practice for older people to ignore or not to give much thought to young people’s behavior and regard this as a passing cloud, I beg to differ. The recent incidents of fatal shootings all over America is the upper peak of a mountain of poor mannerisms that if not checked will result in lawlessness and societal breakdown. I would advocate a campaign for good manners starting at the very bottom. Children as young as three learning to say thank you and please , then moving up to pre-teens who will use the fulfilled and life lessons applications, games, quizzes and chats. Then focus on teenagers and on the other hand providing guidance, advice and support to parents. The slogan I would choose is ‘thanks a million’. This is a slogan that will be part of the campaign that initiates a state by state competition where a million teenagers’ text thank you messages to older people who have done wonderful and even simple things to make life better for others. Tyra banks are in my opinion the most suitable spokesman for the campaign. Her whole life story is an example for many teenagers about how to become a success in life. Born in a middle class background, she lived a normal life and was inspired by her mother who identified her talent in modeling and helped her develop it even through the most challenging times of her life. As a talk show host, Tyra banks have placed her energy towards developing the potential of young women. Her show provides information on fashion, dress, complexion and style. She especially focuses on teenage girls through the Tzone summer camp experience where independence, self esteem is taught to teenage girls at a mountainside camp for a week. Her energy and personality appeals strongly to young girls most importantly. Tyra banks are a modern woman and a role model with manners.   She has started her own campaign against use of derogatory words ageist women in rap videos and has a policy of not allowing swear words to be used during her show. She is the right person for the job. Magic mirror is just a start of the concept of capturing all the senses sight, sound and smell within the iPod. The next phase is to introduce a scent sensor to the iphone as well as a sound sensor. These two features will make the iphone the almost man’s best friend. REFERENCES Winer, R.S. (2007). Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Review of Janet Abbate’s Inventing the Internet

Janet Abbate, Inventing the Internet, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1999, 258 pages Janet Abbate’s Inventing the Internet explores the history of the Internet as â€Å"a tale of collaboration and conflict among a remarkable variety of players. † (3) Abbate’s writing concentrates on the Internet’s development through social and cultural influences. The book explores the evolution of the Internet from ARPANET to global networks.The Internet’s expansion has existed within an interworking web of innovators; government and military, computer scientists, graduate students, researchers, cable and phone companies, network users, etc. The details given by Abbate affirm the book’s claim that the Internet was not born of a single originating event. It, instead, progressed over time through the junction of advances in technology and needs in society. The Internet is an ever-adapting system, which is fresh and changing a t escalating rates yet has a history that crosses over several decades.Born within paranoia surrounding the Cold War and growing through many different forms, the Internet’s history is laid out chronologically in Abbate’s six chapters. In this informative and methodical chronicle, Abbate tracks the important teamwork of the Internet’s creators and societal needs in a detailed and entertaining volume of history. Despite the revolution of the Internet bringing about doorways to assorted information, it has done a bizarrely deprived job of recording its own history. As the Internets’ creators get older, it is essential to capture their first hand accounts of the history they made.In her book, Inventing the Internet, Abbate saves the early history of the Internet. The book is divided into six segments. The first segment relays White Heat and Cold War: The Origins and Meanings of Packet Switching that is primarily about packet switching. The second covers the political and technical challenges involved in Building the ARPANET: Challenges and Strategies, concerning the creation and struggles of ARPANET. The third segment covers user communities and their affect on the ARPANET in â€Å"The Most Neglected Element†: Users Transform the ARPANET.The fourth considers the shift made, From ARPANET to Internet approaching defense and research. The fifth section covers The Internet in the Arena of International Standards. The final section, Popularizing the Internet, shows the beginning of the wide spread of the Internet but before Internet connectivity becomes popular at the personal level. All things considered, the book states the expansions in Internet history between 1959 and 1991, with some proceedings to 1994. The author’s study of the Internet’s genesis makes systematic links between the technological development and its organizational, social, and cultural environment.There are many available histories on the Internet, in print and online. Most are well-documented information on technology and its history. Some mention the fundamental concepts of communication, information, and knowledge. Abbate's work, however, goes beyond ordinary facts and her findings are most revealing. The beginning of the Internet is well known. It was a United States Defense research program named ARPANET. The internal structure of ARPA that reared the network development during its first years is not as well known.Inventing the Internet explains how the little agency was created in 1958 to respond to the Soviets' successful launch of the world's first artificial satellite. ARPA did not own a laboratory. ARPA’s role was to create centers in universities through the financing of research projects in defense-related domains. When ARPA decided in 1969 to connect the supercomputers scattered among university campuses, it had no political or financial difficulty attracting the best computer scientists from all over the United States.The originality of ARPANET is this basic freedom, in contrast to market laws and official control. Inventing the Internet highlights ARPA and its brilliance, which seems to violate both the hands-off approach and the state-intervention ideology. ARPANET was born in an atmosphere of total confidence within a community whose total purpose was to connect the computer equipment from as many universities as possible, while striking the least restricting of standards. Packet-switching technology was the tool hat seemed to execute the fewest constraints so ARPANET was based on packet switching instead of the circuit-switching technology that characterized all other telecommunications networks in the world. Along the way, users and other developers took computer networking in directions that ARPA did not intend. Users rapidly made e-mail the most successful network application. Other countries tested the Internet with varying protocols and applications. The community of scient ists hard-pressed the National Science Foundation into action that overshadowed ARPA's in the 1990s.As new applications and pressures arose, the United States government moved toward privatization of the Internet in the 1990s. This development and the commercialization of personal computers helped build an advantageous atmosphere for the introduction of the hypertext system and web browsers. The World Wide Web turned out to be available even to beginners. Abbate argues successfully that the origins of the Internet â€Å"favored military values, such as survivability, flexibility, and high performance, over commercial goals, such as low cost, simplicity, or consumer appeal† (5).On one good side of things, it was these features that offered computer networks their keen adaptability and quick reaction to the unexpected demands of users. Per the cons, suggests Abbate, they could have caused defiance of commercialization in the system as ARPA did not visualize charging individuals to use the system the way the phone company charges individual telephone users. Based on detailed research in primary documents and extensive communication with many of the principals in the story, Abbate's history delivers the most detailed and revealing account.She succeeds in showing that both its developers and its users socially constructed this evolving technology. How might one know where they're going, if they don’t know where they have been? It's someway comforting to learn that a technology that seems to be new and ever-evolving actually has a history crossing several decades. This history of the Internet, a technology that modern people use on a daily basis in various arrangements, is outlined so perceptively in Janet Abbate’s, Inventing the Internet.